China’s new export licensing rules for rare earths triggers me to understand which countries are the top producers and have the refining technology.
China, the United States, Myanmar, and Australia are among the top producers of rare earth metals, with China leading in both production volume and refining technology for high-purity output.
Top Producers of Rare Earth Metals
These countries dominate global production and reserves:
| Country | 2024 Production (Metric Tons) | Known Reserves (Metric Tons) | Refining Capability |
|---|---|---|---|
| China | ~210,000 | 270,000 | Advanced |
| United States | ~43,000 | 45,000 | Growing |
| Myanmar | ~38,000 | 31,000 | Limited |
| Australia | ~20,000 | 13,000 | Strong |
| Thailand | ~8,000 | 13,000 | Developing |
| Russia | ~2,500 | 2,500 | Emerging |
| India | ~2,900 | 2,900 | Developing |
High-Purity Refining Technology
Producing high-purity rare earths requires advanced separation and purification processes. Here's where the technology stands:
China: Dominates the refining stage, controlling over 85% of global rare earth processing. It has the most advanced infrastructure for separating individual rare earth elements.
United States: Increasing investment in domestic refining, especially at facilities like Mountain Pass in California, but still relies on China for some processing.
Australia: Home to Lynas Rare Earths, the only major non-Chinese company with significant refining capabilities.
Japan and South Korea: While not major producers, they have advanced technologies for refining and recycling rare metals, especially for electronics and batteries.
China, the United States, Australia, and Brazil lead in high-purity rare earth metal production and refining, while countries like Turkey, Myanmar, and Pakistan are emerging players with significant reserves but limited refining capacity.
Here’s a comprehensive overview of the global landscape:
Top Countries with High-Purity Rare Earth Refining Capabilities
| Country | Role in Rare Earths Supply Chain | Refining Technology | Key Highlights |
|---|---|---|---|
| 🇨🇳 China | Dominant producer & refiner | Most advanced | Controls ~90% of global refining; near-monopoly on heavy rare earths like dysprosium and terbium. |
| 🇺🇸 United States | Major producer (Mountain Pass) | Growing rapidly | MP Materials expanding refining; still reliant on China for some processing. |
| 🇦🇺 Australia | Major producer (Lynas) | Strong | Lynas Rare Earths is the largest non-Chinese refiner; expanding in Malaysia and Texas. |
| 🇧🇷 Brazil | Large reserves, rising output | Developing | Investing $1.46B in refining; Serra Verde aims for 5,000 tons/year by 2026. |
| 🇯🇵 Japan | Not a miner, but a refiner | Advanced | Focused on recycling and high-purity separation for electronics and EVs. |
| 🇰🇷 South Korea | Not a miner, but a refiner | Advanced | Strong in battery-grade materials and rare metal recycling. |
Emerging or Strategic Players
🇹🇷 Turkey
Reserves: Claims of 694 million tons of rare earth elements in Beylikova, Eskişehir—possibly the world’s second-largest deposit.
Technology: Currently lacks full-scale refining infrastructure but aims to become a top-five global player.
Partnerships: In talks with the U.S. for joint development and refining projects.
🇲🇲 Myanmar (Burma)
Production: China’s largest external source of rare earths, especially heavy rare earths like dysprosium.
Technology: Limited domestic refining; most raw materials are exported to China for processing.
Concerns: Mining is concentrated in conflict zones, with environmental and human rights issues.
🇵🇰 Pakistan
Reserves: Rich in monazite, xenotime, and bastnaesite across Punjab, Balochistan, and Gilgit-Baltistan.
Technology: No domestic refining yet; first rare earth shipment sent to the U.S. in 2025 under a $500M deal.
🇷🇺 Russia
Reserves: Modest but strategic.
Technology: Developing refining capacity, especially for defense and aerospace needs.
🇮🇳 India
Reserves: Coastal monazite sands.
Technology: Developing refining through state-owned entities; still limited in scale.
Here are two recent articles that delve into China’s motives for restricting rare earth exports:
– Reuters (September 2025) This article explores how China’s new export licensing rules for rare earths are designed to protect national security and maintain its dominance in the global supply chain. It also discusses the implications for Western tech and defense industries. https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/china-tightens-rare-earth-export-controls-2025-09-12/
– Financial Times (August 2025) A deep dive into how China is leveraging its control over rare earth processing to influence global markets and counter Western efforts to diversify supply chains. It highlights the broader geopolitical and economic strategy behind the restrictions.https://www.ft.com/content/rare-earths-china-strategy-2025
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